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In German and Austrian patent laws, the Gebrauchsmuster (GBM, GbM or Gbm), also known as German utility model or Austrian utility model, is a patent-like, intellectual property right protecting inventions.

The Gebrauchsmuster is slightly different from the patent. It mainly differs from the patent in that processes and methods cannot be protected by a Gebrauchsmuster, only products can. Furthermore, the term of a Gebrauchsmuster, that is its maximal life time, is 10 years from the date of registration. In contrast, a patent has usually a term of 20 years from the date of filing of the application.

Germany

The German utility model has some interesting characteristics, when compared to the German patent or to the European patent designating Germany:

• Prior art considered for examining novelty and inventive step is somewhat more limited:
  • Oral disclosures are not taken into account, only written disclosures are taken into account;
  • Public prior use outside Germany is not taken into account;
  • A six-month grace period before the priority date is provided for written disclosures or prior public use made by applicants or their predecessors in title.
• They are not substantially examined. Only registration is sufficient to obtain a utility model.

German utility models are however made available to the public directly when they are registered (Eintragungstag), i.e. before the publication date (Bekanntmachung). In contrast, patents are made available to the public 18 months after the filing date, unless the applicant requests early publication.

Austria

The Austrian utility model is similar to the German utility model. The main differences are:

• A search report is carried out within 6 to 8 months. No additional searching fee is required.
• The range of protection is broader than the German utility model. There is additional protection for:
  • Logic algorithm for computer software
  • Processes
  • Therapy methods for animals

See also

• Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt (German Patent and Trade Mark Office)
• Geschmacksmuster (German industrial design right)
• Österreichisches Patentamt (Austrian Patent and Trade Mark Office)

External links

• Utility model, basic principles, in the English section of the Austrian Patent Office web site

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Maveli Stores is a venture of the The Kerala State Civil Supplies Corporation (Supplyco).

Under the Government programme of market intervention, pulses and spices are purchased and sold to the consumers at subsidised prices fixed by the Government. The Government of Kerala aids this operation by giving grants every year. The task has been fulfilled through the network of Maveli Stores, which was started to commemorate the saga of Mahabali, legendary king of Kerala. Now the Maveli Stores has become a prominent name among the consumers in the state. Supplyco operates through Maveli Stores and Mobile Maveli Stores throughout the state covering almost all the panchayaths. Quality products and subsidised pricing are the twin advantages, which Supplyco extend to the consumer. Supplyco has also undertaken distribution of pulses and spices and other branded products of Civil Supplies Corporation at subsidised prices, through the network of 2000 selected ration shops.

Succumbing to the overwhelming public demand, Supplyco expanded its horizon of activities into other vital areas of consumer interest by starting Super Markets, Petrol Bunks, LPG outlets and Medical Stores (Sabari Medical Stores). Supplyco also markets its own branded products of tea, coffee, milled wheat products, curry products, iodized salt, washing soaps and detergents.

See also

• Supplyco
• Margin Free Market

External links

• Supplyco Website

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Dog-leg is a term used to describe a configuration of stairs between two floors of a building, often a domestic building, in which there are two short flights at 180 degrees to each other, joined by a half-landing to enable the 180 degree turn. The flights do not have to be equal, and frequently are not.

Structurally the flights of a dog-leg stair are usually supported by the half-landing, which spans the adjoining flank walls.

From the design point of view the main advantages of a dog-leg stair are:

• To allow an arrangement that occupies a shorter, though wider, floor area than a straight flight, and so is more compact. Even though the landings consume total floor space, there is no large single dimension
• The upper floor is not directly visible from the bottom of the stairs, thereby providing more privacy

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John Maynard Keynes developed a mathematical function to express consumer spending as one term called the “consumption function”. In economics, the consumption function calculates the amount of total consumption in an economy. It is made up of autonomous consumption that is not influenced by current income and induced consumption that is influenced by the economy’s income level.

The simple consumption function is shown as the linear function:

‘C = c₀ + c₁‘Y^d

where C = total consumption, c₀ = autonomous consumption,c₁ = the marginal propensity to consume, and Y^d = disposable income (income after taxes and transfer payments). The second term (c₁*Y^d) is induced consumption.

Autonomous consumption represent consumption when income is zero. In estimation, this is usually assumed to be positive. The marginal propensity to consume (MPC), on the other hand measures the rate at which consumption is changing when income is changing. In a geometric fashion, the MPC is actually the slope of the consumption function.

The MPC is assumed to be positive. Thus, as income increases, consumption increases. However, Keynes mentioned that the increases (for income and consumption) are not equal. According to him, “as income increases, consumption increases but not by as much as the increase in income”.

The Keynesian consumption function is also known as the absolute income hypothesis, as it only bases consumption on current income and ignores potential future income (or lack of). Criticism of this assumption lead to the development of Milton Friedman’s permanent income hypothesis and Franco Modigliani’s life cycle hypothesis.

See also

• Permanent income hypothesis
• Life cycle hypothesis
• Consumption (economics)
• Aggregate demand
• Measures of national income and output

==

External links==

• An essay examining the strengths and weaknesses of Keynes’s theory of consumption

• Tennessee Center for Policy Research Gore

In computability theory a cylindric numbering is a special kind of numbering first introduced by Yuri L. Ershov in 1973.

If a numberings <math>\nu</math> is reducible to <math>\mu</math> then there exists a computable function <math>f</math> with <math>\nu = \mu \circ f</math>. Usually <math>f</math> is not injective but if <math>\mu</math> is a cylindric numbering we can always find an injective <math>f</math>.

Definition

A numbering <math>\nu</math> is called cylindric if

<math>\nu \equiv_1 c(\nu).</math>

That is if it is one-equivalent to its cylindrification

A set <math>S</math> is called cylindric if its indicator function

<math>1_S: \mathbb{N} \to \{0,1\}</math>

is a cylindric numbering.

Examples

• every Gödel numbering is cylindric

Properties

• cylindric numberings are idempotent, <math>\nu \circ \nu = \nu</math>

References

• Yu. L. Ershov, “Theorie der Numerierungen I.” Zeitschrift für mathematische Logik und Grundlagen der Mathematik 19, 289-388 (1973).

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The Scottish Qualifications Certificate (SQC) is the successor to the Scottish Certificate of Education in Scotland, and is the main educational qualification awarded to students in secondary and further (post-secondary) education. The SQC is awarded by the Scottish Qualifications Authority. It forms part of the wider array of qualifications available in the Scottish education system, including Scottish Vocational Qualifications, Higher National Certificates and Higher National Diplomas. Each level is fully integrated with the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework and the three upper levels are awarded UCAS Tariff Points.

The SQC recognises performance in National Units, National Courses and in the Scottish Group Award. It is not part of the National Qualifications Framework and as such are not available to state schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, but students from other nations do study for the qualification.

Levels and grades

It is available at several levels, with the possible grades and rough GCSE and A-level equivalent shown:

See also

• Education in Scotland
• Scottish Executive
• Learning and Teaching Scotland

External links

• Scottish Qualifications Authority
• Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework

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Brewster’s angle (also known as the polarization angle) is an optical phenomenon named after the Scottish physicist, Sir David Brewster (1781–1868).

When light moves between two media of differing refractive index, generally some of it is reflected at the boundary. At one particular angle of incidence, however, light with one particular polarization cannot be reflected. This angle of incidence is Brewster’s angle, θ_B. The polarization that cannot be reflected at this angle is the polarization for which the electric field of the light waves lies in the same plane as the incident ray and the surface normal (i.e. the plane of incidence). Light with this polarization is said to be p-polarized, because it is parallel to the plane. Light with the perpendicular polarization is said to be s-polarized, from the German senkrecht—perpendicular. When unpolarized light strikes a surface at Brewster’s angle, the reflected light is always s-polarized.

The physical mechanism for this can be qualitatively understood from the manner in which electric dipoles in the media respond to p-polarized light. One can imagine that light incident on the surface is absorbed, and then reradiated by oscillating electric dipoles at the interface between the two media. The polarization of freely propagating light is always perpendicular to the direction in which the light is travelling. The dipoles that produce the transmitted (refracted) light oscillate in the polarization direction of that light. These same oscillating dipoles also generate the reflected light. However, dipoles do not radiate any energy in the direction along which they oscillate. Consequently, if the direction of the refracted light is perpendicular to the direction in which the light is predicted to be specularly reflected, the dipoles will not create any reflected light. Since, by definition, the s-polarization is parallel to the interface, the corresponding oscillating dipoles will always be able to radiate in the specular-reflection direction. This is why there is no Brewster’s angle for s-polarized light.

With simple trigonometry this condition can be expressed as:

<math> \theta_1 + \theta_2 = 90^\circ,</math>

where θ₁ is the angle of incidence and θ₂ is the angle of refraction.

Using Snell’s law,

<math>n_1 \sin \left( \theta_1 \right) =n_2 \sin \left( \theta_2 \right),</math>

we can calculate the incident angle θ₁=θ_B at which no light is reflected:

<math>n_1 \sin \left( \theta_B \right) =n_2 \sin \left( 90 - \theta_B \right)=n_2 \cos \left( \theta_B \right).</math>

Rearranging, we get:

<math>\theta_B = \arctan \left( \frac{n_2}{n_1} \right), </math>

where n₁ and n₂ are the refractive indices of the two media. This equation is known as Brewster’s law.

Note that, since all p-polarized light is refracted (i.e transmitted), any light reflected from the interface at this angle must be s-polarized. A glass plate or a stack of plates placed at Brewster’s angle in a light beam can thus be used as a polarizer.

For a glass medium (n₂≈1.5) in air (n₁≈1), Brewster’s angle for visible light is approximately 56° to the normal while for an air-water interface (n₂≈1.33), it’s approximately 53°. Since the refractive index for a given medium changes depending on the wavelength of light, Brewster’s angle will also vary with wavelength.

The phenomenon of light being polarized by reflection from a surface at a particular angle was first observed by Etienne-Louis Malus in 1808. He attempted to relate the polarizing angle to the refractive index of the material, but was frustrated by the inconsistent quality of glasses available at that time. In 1815, Brewster experimented with higher-quality materials and showed that this angle was a function of the refractive index, defining Brewster’s law.

Although Brewster’s angle
is generally presented as a zero-reflection angle in textbooks from the late 1950s onwards, it truly is a polarizing angle.
The concept of a polarizing angle can be extended to the concept of a Brewster wavenumber to cover planar interfaces between
two linear bianisotropic materials.

Examples

Polarized sunglasses use the principle of Brewster’s angle to eliminate glare from the sun reflecting off of water (or any other reflective surface). In a large range of angles around Brewster’s angle the reflection of p-polarized light is lower than s-polarized light. Thus, if the sun is low in the sky mostly s-polarized light will reflect from water. Sunglasses made up of polarizers (e.g. polaroid film) aligned to block this light consequently block reflections from the water. To accomplish this, sunglass makers assume people will be upright while viewing the water and thus align the polarizers to block the polarization which oscillates along the line connecting the sunglass ear-pieces (i.e. horizontal).

Photographers use the same principle to remove reflections from water so that they might photograph objects beneath the surface. In this case, the polarizer filter camera attachment can be rotated to be at the correct angle (see figure).

See also

• Fresnel equations
• Snell’s law

References

• A. Lakhtakia, ‘Would Brewster recognize today’s Brewster angle?’ OSA Optics News, Vol. 15, No. 6, pp. 14-18 (1989).
• A. Lakhtakia, ‘General schema for the Brewster conditions,’ Optik, Vol. 90, pp. 184-186 (1992).

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