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Contents 1 Immunology 2 <math> nowiki> immunology positive Inselection is when: developing T-cells are selected for recognition of self MHC (and self peptides). This ensures an immune response can develop. Followed by [[negative selectio 3 Genetics 4 Examples 5 See also 6 References

Immunology

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<math> nowiki> immunology positive Inselection is when: developing T-cells are selected for recognition of self MHC (and self peptides). This ensures an immune response can develop. Followed by [[negative selectio

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Genetics

In population genetics, directional selection occurs when natural selection favors a single allele and therefore allele frequency continuously shifts in one direction. Under directional selection, the advantageous allele will increase in frequency independently of its dominance relative to other alleles (i.e. even if the advantageous allele is recessive, it will eventually become fixed). Directional selection stands in contrast to balancing selection where selection may favor multiple alleles, or purifying selection which removes deleterious mutations from a population. Directional selection is a particular mode or mechanism of natural selection.

Examples

• A classic example is the evolution of the peppered moth, where the favored trait of moth color (light or dark) noticeably shifted to a darker shade in relation to the effects of human industrialization.

See also

• Stabilizing selection
• Disruptive selection

References

• P. C. Sabeti, et al. Science 312, 1614 (2006) Positive Natural Selection in the Human Lineage (Review)

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Foundationalism is any theory in epistemology (typically, theories of justification, but also of knowledge) that holds that beliefs are justified (known, etc.) based on what are called basic beliefs (also commonly called foundational beliefs). Basic beliefs are beliefs that give justificatory support to other beliefs, and more derivative beliefs are based on those more basic beliefs. The basic beliefs are said to be self-justifying or self-evident, that is, they enjoy a non-inferential warrant (or justification), i.e., they are not justified by other beliefs. Typically and historically, foundationalists have held either that basic beliefs are justified by mental events or states, such as experiences, that do not constitute beliefs (these are called nondoxastic mental states), or that they simply are not the type of thing that can be (or needs to be) justified.

Hence, generally, a foundationalist might offer the following theory of justification:

A belief is epistemically justified if and only if (1) it is justified by a basic belief or beliefs, or (2) it is justified by a chain of beliefs that is supported by a basic belief or beliefs, and on which all the others are ultimately based.

A basic belief, on the other hand, does not require justification because it is a different kind of belief than a non-foundational one.

Contents 1 Arguments for foundationalism 2 Historical foundationalism: rationalism vs. empiricism 3 Alternatives to foundationalism 4 External links

Arguments for foundationalism

Foundationalists most generally tend to argue that there must be some set of epistemologically basic propositions or else the process of justification will always lead to Agrippa’s Trilemma, which ends in either an infinite regress, a dogmatic stopping point, or a circular argument, none of which are logically valid.

Historical foundationalism: rationalism vs. empiricism

Historically, two varieties of foundationalist theories were rationalism and empiricism (or British Empiricism). Strictly speaking, neither empiricism nor rationalism is necessarily committed to foundationalism (it is possible to be an empiricist coherentist, for example, and that was a common epistemological position in 20th century philosophy).

Rationalism is the general name for epistemological theories that maintain that reason is the source and criterion of knowledge. Rationalists generally hold that so-called truths of reason are the (most important) epistemologically basic propositions. The historical, continental rationalism expounded by René Descartes is often regarded as antithetical to empiricism, while some contemporary rationalism asserts that reason is strongest when it is supported by or consistent with empirical evidence and hence relies heavily on empirical science in analyzing justifications for belief. René Descartes famously held that some of these truths are known innately and therefore constitute basic innate knowledge, a view not always held in contemporary rationalism.

Empiricism is the general name for epistemological theories that maintain that sensation reports are the source and criterion of knowledge. Classical empiricists generally held that such reports are indubitable and incorrigible and therefore worthy of serving as epistemologically basic propositions.

Alternatives to foundationalism

Alternatives to foundationalism, usually called Anti-foundationalism, include coherentism, reformed epistemology and reliabilism (though this has sometimes been construed as an unusual variant of foundationalism). Contextualism (or, in a stripped-down version, the blind posits theory) is the epistemological version of relativism; relativism is more often regarded as a theory of truth than as a theory of justification or knowledge. Also see Pragmatism.

External links

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Gross Output is an economic concept used in national accounts such as the United Nations System of National Accounts (UNSNA) and the US National Income and Product Accounts (NIPA). It is equal to the value of net output or GDP (also known as gross value added) plus intermediate consumption.

Gross Output represents, roughly speaking, the total value of sales by producing enterprises in an accounting period (e.g. a quarter or a year), before subtracting the value of intermediate goods used up in production. This description is not quite accurate though, among other things because flows relating to government services and households are also included.

To obtain a measure of gross value added or Net output, the value of intermediate goods and services must be subtracted from Gross Output. Net value added is obtained by additionally subtracting consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

The statistical definition of Gross Output is dependent upon the definition of production applied. Typically some economic flows and activities are excluded from coverage in calculating the value of Gross Output, on the ground that they are unrelated to production in the domestic economy. These include foreign transactions, property income, transfers, and various government disbursements, unpaid housework and voluntary work. On the other hand, items are included which some economists would regard as spurious, such as the imputed rental value of owner-occupied housing (this is the average rents, at market rates, which owners of residential housing would receive if they rented out the housing they occupy).

See also

• GDP
• Intermediate consumption
• Net output
• United Nations System of National Accounts (UNSNA)
• National accounts

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Year 1516 (MDXVI) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Contents 1 Events of 1516 1.1 January - June 1.2 July - December 1.3 Undated 2 Births 3 Deaths

Events of 1516

January - June

• March - With the death of Ferdinand II of Aragon, his grandson Charles of Ghent becomes King of Spain as Carlos I.
• April 23 - The Reinheitsgebot is instituted in Ingolstadt, Bavaria regulating the purity of beer permissible for sale.

July - December

• July - Selim I of the Ottoman Empire declares war on the Mameluks and invades Syria.
• August 13 - The Treaty of Noyon is signed. Francis recognizes Charles’s claim to Naples, and Charles recognizes Francis’s claim to Milan.
• October 28 - Battle of Yaunis Khan. Turkish forces under the Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha defeat the Mameluks near Gaza.
• December 4 - Treaty of Brussels - Peace between France and the Empire.

Undated

• Pedro de Solis discovers the Río de la Plata.
• King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X sign the Concordat of Bologna.
• Desiderius Erasmus publishes a new Greek translation of the New Testament.
• Thomas More publishes Utopia.

Births

• January 1 - Margareta Leijonhufvud, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (died 1551)
• February 18 - Queen Mary I of England (died 1558)
• March 26 - Conrad Gessner, Swiss naturalist (died 1565)
• April 23 - Georg Fabricius, Protestant German poet (died 1571)
• September 21 - Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox (died 1571)
• date unknown
  • John Foxe, biographer (died 1587)
  • Martin Heilwig, Silesian cartographer (died 1574)
  • Manco Inca Yupanqui, ruler of the Inca (died 1544)
  • Canghali of Kazan, khan of Qasim and Kazan
  • Shri Gusainji, son of Shri Vallabhacharyaji.
• probable
  • James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault (died 1572)

See also .

Deaths

• January 20 - Juan Díaz de Solís, Spanish navigator and explorer (born 1470)
• March 13 - King Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary (born 1456)
• March 17 - Giuliano di Lorenzo de’ Medici, ruler of Florence (born 1478)
• April 25 - John Yonge, English diplomat (born 1467)
• June 14 - King John III of Navarre (born 1469)
• June 23 - King Ferdinand II of Aragon (born 1452)
• August - Hieronymus Bosch, Dutch painter (born 1450)
• December 13 - Johannes Trithemius, German scholar and cryptographer (born 1462)
• date unknown
  • Giuliano da Sangallo, Italian sculptor and architect (born 1443)
• probable
  • Giovanni Bellini, Italian painter (born 1430)

See also .

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Captain Paf (also known as Cardinal Puff or Cardinal Chunder in Britain and Cardinal Puff the United States, Cardinal Huff in New Zealand) is a French drinking game based on a script that must be executed in order for play to move to the next person. Any interruption or error in the script causes the player to start over from the beginning. Therefore, a player only stops drinking when the script can be perfectly executed.

Due to possible long wait times between when you are allowed to drink, this game is more suited for a small group. It can also be played backwards to make it harder.

Captain Paf script

• Say “My name is Captain Paf and I drink for the first time”
• Raise glass using thumb and index finger
• Take one sip
• Tap glass once on table
• Clap once
• Slap thighs once

• Say “My name is Captain Paf and I drink for the second time”
• Raise glass between thumb, index and middle fingers
• Take two distinct sips
• Tap glass twice on table
• Clap twice
• Slap thighs twice

• Say “My name is Captain Paf and I drink for the third time”
• Raise glass between thumb, index, middle, and ring fingers
• Take three distinct sips
• Tap glass thrice on table
• Clap thrice
• Slap thighs thrice

Note that when picking up your glass the number of fingers used (except thumb) is the number of the iteration through the script. This is the most common mistake.

Cardinal Puff script

An entire can or bottle of beer must be consumed (in x sips) when performing the actions. Any deviation from the requirements automatically prevents the player from playing until the offending container of beer has been consumed. A new beverage is required every time a player attempts the script. If a player is successful, they are awarded the title of “Cardinal.” Note that the title of Cardinal can only be awarded by another Cardinal.

• Say “Here’s to the Cardinal Puff for the first time tonight”
• Slap left side of your chest with your right hand once
• Slap right side of your chest with your left hand once
• Slap right thigh with right hand once
• Slap left thigh with left hand once
• Stomp right foot once
• Stomp left foot once
• Tap side of the glass once
• Take one sip
• Tap glass once on table
• Place the glass back down

• Say “Here’s to the Cardinal Puff for the second time tonight”
• Slap left side of your chest with your right hand twice
• Slap right side of your chest with your left hand twice
• Slap right thigh with right hand twice
• Slap left thigh with left hand twice
• Stomp right foot twice
• Stomp left foot twice
• Tap side of the glass twice
• Take two sips
• Tap glass twice on table
• Place the glass back down

• Say “Here’s to the Cardinal Puff for the third and final time tonight”
• Slap left side of your chest with your right hand thrice
• Slap right side of your chest with your left hand thrice
• Slap right thigh with right hand thrice
• Slap left thigh with left hand thrice
• Stomp right foot thrice
• Stomp left foot thrice
• Tap side of the glass thrice
• Take three sips
• Tap glass thrice on table
• Say “Once a Cardinal,” while turning the can upside down to demonstrate it is empty.
• Say “Always a Cardinal,” while turning the can rightside up.

Rule variations from Captain Puf:

• Finger placement while sipping does not matter
• Any mistakes made and the player must finish his glass and start over
• The glass must be finished by the end of the execution of the script otherwise the player has to start over

---

Cardinal Puff, And Bishop Puff Variants——————–

Here’s a variant form of Cardinal, that is just as hard, but condensed somewhat.

All players must first, with a Cardinal PRESENT (teaching the game), agree from this moment on to play the game FOREVER! Since the game will never stop. Part of the agreement is, on the Cardinal’s behalf to teach everyone the game, give helpful hints after mistakes are made, and make sure everyone reaches the rank of Cardinal….eventually. From this moment, if you achieve Cardinal status (granted by the present Cardinal), you will be asked to respond to the question, “Are you a Cardinal?” To which the only correct, response is, “You bet your sweet ass I am.” Failure to answer this question correctly, grants the asker, the right to force you to consume 1 twelve ounce glass of adult beverage of your choosing. It must be consumed all in one sip, i.e. you may not take the container away from your lips until it is empty. You may take as long as you like to consume it, even pausing to breathe, but you MUST FINISH THE BEVERAGE. Failure to comply with this request from a confirmed Cardinal will result in loosing your rank of Cardinal. Once everyone agrees to these rules which are always in effect, even when you are not sitting at a table playing the actual script, then the game begins. Any players who do not wish to agree to the ongoing aspect of the game, is asked to leave the table, and informed, that if they leave, this Cardinal will never ask him/her to play the game again, ever.

Script Variation.

Determine a starting player, AFTER the Cardinal has demonstrated the script. Ways to do this are, oldest player at the table, youngest player, player who has the most country stamps on his/her passport, dice, coin flip etc.

The starting player must then execute IN EXACT ORDER the following script and actions. Failure to do so results in loosing your turn, and you must consume ALL the remaining liquid of your beverage right then, without taking the container away from your lips, and you must do it as fast as possible, since the next player cannot begin until YOU finish.

Script:

1) Say, “This is Cardinal Puff taking his FIRST drink of the evening.” (As the teaching Cardinal you may hold up one finger as a helpful hint to new players. But it is not required, you are required however, to stop any player immediately upon a mistake, make them drink, and point to the next player.)

2) ACTION: With your forefinger and thumb lift the beverage and consume, ONE SIP. Your sip may be as big or as little as you wish but, you may only touch the container to your lips ONE TIME. Tap the container on the table as you place it down. HINT: You are required through the actions of the game to consume the ENTIRE 12 ounces within 6 sips. That is to say the container is only going to touch your lips 6 times during the game. So the more you consume in the first few sips, will make it easier to finish the beverage.

3) ACTION: With your right index finger, tap the top of the table ONCE. Then with your left index finger, tap the top of the table ONCE. Then again with your right index finger, tap the underside of the table ONCE, repeat with your left index finger. Leave them both there as you’ll need them for balance in the next action.

4) Stand up from your seat ONCE.

5) Say, “This is Cardinal Puff taking his SECOND drink of the evening.”

6) ACTION: With your forefinger, middle finger and thumb lift the beverage and consume, TWO SIPS. Your sips may be as big or as little as you wish but, you may only touch the container to your lips TWO TIMES. Tap the container TWICE on the table as you place it down.

7) ACTION: With your right index and middle fingers, tap the top of the table TWICE. Then with your left index and middle fingers, tap the top of the table TWICE. Then again with your right index and middle fingers, tap the underside of the table TWICE, repeat with your left index and middle fingers. Leave them all there as you’ll need them for balance in the next action.

Stand up from your seat TWICE.

9) Say, “This is Cardinal Puff taking his THIRD AND FINAL drink of the evening.”

10) ACTION: With your forefinger, middle finger, ring finger and thumb lift the beverage and consume, THREE SIPS. Your sips may be as big or as little as you wish but, you may only touch the container to your lips THREE TIMES. YOUR BEVERAGE MUST BE FULLY CONSUMED AT THIS POINT OR YOU FAIL, AND MUST START OVER. Tap the container THRICE on the table as you place it down.

11) ACTION: With your right index, middle and ring fingers, tap the top of the table THREE TIMES. Then with your left index, middle and ring fingers, tap the top of the table THREE TIMES. Then again with your right index, middle and ring fingers, tap the underside of the table THREE TIMES, repeat with your left index, middle and ring fingers. Leave them all there as you’ll need them for balance in the next action.

12) Stand up from your seat THREE TIMES.

13) FINAL STEP: After the THIRD sitting, repeat the following script and actions SIMULTANEOUSLY and EXACTLY or you fail, and must try again….it is up to the Cardinal judging you, to decide if you should consume another….if you truly finished the beer, but just messed up the final phase, the Cardinal can (and probably should) consider your effort as valiant, and show leniency.

Say, “Once a Cardinal…” While at the same time with your preferred hand PALM UP, turn the container over onto it’s top. Then continue with, “…Always a Cardinal.” While again, simultaneously lifting the container, again PALM UP and rotate the glass in the OPPOSITE direction from when you flipped it the first time. That is, if you lifted it and flipped it to your left, on the second flip pick it up and flip it to your right. This is to show to all, the container has indeed been fully drained. Some wetness is expected, but anything more than a sip spilling out, constitutes failure. Failure at this point, may require you to consume another full 12 ounce beer.

Now if you’ve SUCCESSFULLY completed all these tasks, the Cardinal will grant you the rank of Cardinal. He will then inform you that if he sees you again, and asks you the question, “Are you a Cardinal?” And you do not respond with the proper reply, “You bet your sweet ass I am.” He will then be forced to ask you to consume a full 12 ounce beer RIGHT THEN! Failure to comply will result in his demoting you from the rank of Cardinal.

Any mistake made during any part of the script or actions, will result in the Cardinal telling you to stop, finish your beer (or consume a new full 12 ounces, if your glass is less than 1/3RD full) and point to the next player to get ready to start, once the previous player has consumed their penalty. Anyone who is caught distracting a player during the script will be asked to consume a full beer right then, in one sip. If a player breaks this rule 3 times, they are asked to leave, and never invited to play again….ever.

Bishop Puff Variation.

The script and rules above all apply, however the container size differs. Instead of one 12 ounce beverage, the players will be consuming one (1) full pitcher of liquid. Or the equivalent of one 6-pack. The FINAL question is changed to: “Are you a Bishop?” however, the response remains the same as above.

Pope Puff Variation.

Same rules as applied to Cardinal and Bishop variations, however again the quantity and questions are slightly altered. Instead of a pitcher, or 6-pack, the players will now attempt to consume a FULL CASE of beer (24 Twelve Ounce containers). The ENTIRE case must be poured into ONE container, or as few containers as possible to hold all the liquid. The FINAL question is now: “Are you the Pope?” The response again, is the same as before.

God Variation.

Same as all the other applications, but now we’re up from a case to a keg, 1/4 barrel size will suffice. This variation is impossible to complete.

Alternate Liquids.

Although beer is the usual choice, any liquid can be used instead. But be responsible, the harder the liquid, the more dangerous. Drink responsibly, and if someone becomes too intoxicated, as the teaching Cardinal, you can tell them they cannot achieve the rank of Cardinal this time, but can try again, once fully recovered from their intoxication.

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A section of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System.

L Antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents

L04A Immunosuppressive agents

L04AA Selective immunosuppressive agents

L04AA01 Ciclosporin

L04AA02 Muromonab-CD3

L04AA03 Antilymphocyte immunoglobulin (horse)

L04AA04 Antithymocyte immunoglobulin (rabbit)

L04AA05 Tacrolimus

L04AA06 Mycophenolic acid

L04AA08 Daclizumab

L04AA09 Basiliximab

L04AA10 Sirolimus

L04AA11 Etanercept

L04AA12 Infliximab

L04AA13 Leflunomide

L04AA14 Anakinra

L04AA15 Alefacept

L04AA16 Afelimomab

L04AA17 Adalimumab

L04AA18 Everolimus

L04AA19 Gusperimus

L04AA21 Efalizumab

L04AA22 Abetimus

L04AA23 Natalizumab

L04AX Other immunosuppressive agents

L04AX01 Azathioprine

L04AX02 Thalidomide

L04AX03 Methotrexate

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In anthropology, cultural diffusion refers to the spread of ideas, inventions, or patterns of behavior to different societies (Wintrop 1991:82)

Since cultures have never been completely isolated from each other, diffusion has happened throughout history, and continues on today. Version of diffusionist thought included the conviction that all cultures originated from one culture centre (heliocentric diffusion); the more reasonable view that culture originated from a limited number of culture centers and finally the notion that each society is influenced by other but that the process of diffusion is both contingent and arbitrary (Wintrop 1991: 83-84)

There are three different forms of cultural diffusion:

• Direct diffusion is when two cultures are very close to each other, resulting in intermarriage, trade, and even warfare. An example of direct diffusion is between the United States and Canada, where the people living on the border of these two countries engage in hockey, which started in Canada, and baseball, which is big in American culture
• Forced diffusion occurs when one culture subjugates (conquers or enslaves) another culture and forces its own customs on the conquered people. An example would be the conquistadors that took over the indigenous population and made them practice Christianity.
• Indirect diffusion happens when traits are passed from one culture through a middleman to another culture, without the first and final cultures ever being in direct contact. An example could be the presence of Mexican food in Canada, since they have a huge country in between them.

Direct diffusion is very common in ancient times, when small groups, or bands, of humans lived in adjoining settlements. Indirect diffusion is very common in today’s world, because of the mass media and the invention of the Internet.

Cultural diffusion is one of the mechanism of cultural change other being Evolution. Direct diffusion leads to process to acculturation

See also

• Diffusionism
• Dominating culture
• Historian’s fallacy
• Cultural appropriation

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Londres may refer to:

• French, Portuguese and Spanish for the British capital city, London.
• Albert Londres
• Londres, Catamarca, Argentina - formally ‘San Juan de la Ribera de Londres’ or ‘Londres de la Nueva Inglaterra’
• An alternate spelling of the word laundry.

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Sales--------------------------------- $100,000
Cost of Goods Sold
  Inventory 01/01/03-- $ 5,000
  Purchases------------ 45,000
  Direct Labor--------- 30,000
                        _______
                                80,000
  Less: Inventory 12/31/03----- 10,000
                                _______

  Net Cost of Goods Sold---------------- 70,000
                                         ______

Gross Profit on Sales------------------ $30,000